Abstract The series of experiments had two objectives. First, to study fatty acids (FA) composition of Thai-Native cattle beef (NB), European crossbred cattle beef (EB), and Brahman crossbred cattle beef (BC) survey was conducted in local fresh markets in Northeast Thailand. Second, to investigate the effects of different quality roughage on productivity, meat quality, and FA profiles in beef cattle. Experiment 1 was conducted as a completely randomized design by collecting 96 beef samples: NB averaging 2 years old, 200–250 kg body weight (BW); BC, averaging 3 years old, 450 kg BW, and EB, averaging 3 years old, 550-650 kg BW. Experiment 2 grouped 20 Brahman x Native crossbred with 10 cattles in each of two groups using a Independent t-test. The 1^st group received high level concentrate with rice straw (HCRS), and the 2^nd group received low level concentrate with fresh grass (LCFG). Polyunsaturated FAs were higher in NB than in EB, whereas NB had lower n-6/n-3 FA proportions than BC and EB, respectively (P < 0.05). Cattle fed with HCRS or LCFG demonstrated no marked variations for performance or meat quality. Cattle fed on LCFG demonstrated increased n-3 FA contents in semimembranosus (SM), with decreased n-6/n-3 FA ratio for longissimus lumborum (LL) and SM. These results suggest that altering source of roughage to high-quality roughage by increasing the amount of n-3 in cattle diets results in increasing the amount of n-3 FA and decreasing the n-6/n-3 FA ratio in beef.

Keywords: Roughage quality, Rice straw, Fresh grass, Meat quality, Fatty acid, n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio, Growth efficiency, Beef cattle

Funding: This research was funded by the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) (Project Code: SUT3-303-55-24-04).

Citation:  Noosen, P., Suksombat, W., Srisaikham, S., and Lounglawan, P. 2026. Different quality roughage impacts the productivity, meat quality characteristics, and fatty acid profile of beef cattle. Natural and Life Sciences Communications. 25(4): e2026081.

Graphical Abstract:

INTRODUCTION

Current study on human nutrition have raised awareness and encouraged consumers to focus on nutritious foods for good health, including health products from livestock, the quality of which suits their needs (Davis et al., 2022). In livestock products, beef is one of the widely consumed meat products to fulfill nutritional needs (Lui et al., 2022). FAOSTAT (2025) reported that producing animals/slaughtered for meat of cattle with bone, fresh or chilled was 309.9 million, the production of meat from cattle was 69.5 million tons, which is lower than that of meat from pigs and chicken. Gross production value of meat of cattle with the bone, fresh or chilled, and meat of cattle with the bone, fresh or chilled (indigenous) in 2023, was 294.9 billion USD and 283.5 billion USD, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2025). However, health concerns have led to a focus on the fat content and fatty acid (FA) composition of beef (Davis et al., 2022). Certain human disorders may be linked to high saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in particular (Hocquette et al., 2005). Diet, breed, and slaughter age impact the FA composition in the intramuscular fat of beef cattle (Park et al., 2018). Currently, cattle fattening uses high-nutritious concentrated feed to increase the cattle’s growth rate. However, it was discovered that this results in cattle having an unbalanced proportion of n-6/n-3 fatty acids (FA), which can increase the risk of disease in consumers. The proportion of n-6/n-3 FA desires to be adjusted, with an increase in good quality roughage resulting in a higher amount of n-3 FA. In addition, fattening cattle using a modern farming style that feeds concentrates leads to an imbalanced n-6/n-3 FA ratio (Nuernberg et al., 2005; Varre et al., 2026). C18:2n-6 FA is generally high in beef due to feeding concentrates. Commercial beef therefore tends to have a relatively high n-6/n-3 FA ratio (>5:1), consistent with Enser et al. (1998) reported that adipose tissues from animals raised on pasture showed higher levels of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) but concentrate-based diets had higher levels of n-6 PUFA. Westernized diets contain high amounts of n-6 FAs, resulting in an n-6:n-3 ratio of 10:1 to 20:1, increasing the risk of developing inflammatory disorders such as obesity (Torres-Castillo et al., 2018). The consumption of such red meat increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (Hausen et al., 2017; Cao et al., 2024).

Studies have recommended a reduced consumption of fatty foods and a mitigation of the risk of various diseases (Gonzalez-Becerra et al., 2023) when the n-6/n-3 FA ratio was between 4:1 and 5:1 (Zhang et al., 2024). It is therefore important to enhance the proportion of n-3 FAs, one method for which is an adjustment in the proportion of roughage, by increasing the amount of roughage and decreasing concentrates for cattle (Enser et al., 1998). Modifications in the amount of roughage elevate n-3 FA intake in cattle (Zhu et al., 2022). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernâhrung (DGE), (2000) reported that reducing the n-6/n-3 FA ratio in the meat consumed to <5:1 reduces the risk of disease. However, changing the FA ratio in beef may affect the flavor; the fat contained in meat improves its flavor (Arshad et al., 2018). Additionally, the color of fat is influenced by FAs (Wood et al., 2003). Moloney et al. (2008) increasing roughage and decreasing concentrate feeding for beef cattle had no effect on meat quality in terms of tenderness, texture, flavor, and chewiness.

Indigenous Thai cattle and crossbred with Brahman or other Europe breeds distributed about 47.94% and 47.31% of the total of 9,904,037 beef cattle in Thailand, respectively (DLD, 2024). The top five regions in the Northeast of Thailand produce the greatest beef cattle, and Nakhon Ratchasima province has the second largest population of beef cattle (DLD, 2024). Native and their Brahman crossbreeds have a high percentage of lean, tenderness, and low fat percentage (Pilajun et al., 2021), growth rate, carcass percentage, and marbling (Opatpatanakit et al., 2007). Most of them are raised generally, on local natural feed (such as low-cost agricultural feedstuffs by-products or residues of rice, cassava, sugarcane (Wanapat, 1999). In Northeast Thailand, the lack of high-quality roughage during the dry season is a significant issue; common practice for farmers is to supplement concentrate with rice straw as roughage for beef cattle (Pilajun et al., 2021). Nevertheless, its nutritional quality is inferior to that of grasses (Aquino et al., 2019), leading to a lower marbling score and diminishing its appeal in Thailand's high-end beef markets. The middle and high-end beef markets are commercial production that focuses on producing high-quality meat, breed quality, which are often Bos taurus crossbreeds (e.g., Charolais, Limousin, Simmental, and Angus) (DLD, 2010), to improve their production traits (Pilajun et al., 2021). This is consistent with Bunmee et al. (2018) reporting that feedlot cattle crossbred with Charolais at a rate of more than 50% produced high-quality meat in Thailand. This entails overseeing high-quality feed and rearing fattening cattle with concentrated feed to accelerate growth and yield marbling, tenderness, and superior meat quality per market requirements.

Modern consumers are increasingly health-conscious and seek products with higher nutritional value. Because different cattle breeds and management systems result in different fat depositions, there is a need to benchmark the existing FA levels in the local market. While NB beef is known for its lean quality, commercial beef production in Thailand is dominated by BC and EB to meet market demands for growth and marbling. However, there is a lack of comprehensive data on how these popular crossbreds, under current market conditions, compare to native breeds in terms of health-related FA profiles. Therefore, Experiment I was designed to benchmark the current status of beef quality in local markets, specifically identifying the nutritional gaps in crossbred beef compared to the healthier profile of native cattle. Based on the findings from Experiment I, which highlighted the unbalanced n-6/n-3 ratio in crossbreds typically fed high-concentrate and low-quality roughage diets, Experiment II was subsequently conducted as a strategic intervention. It aimed to bridge this identified quality gap by substituting low-quality rice straw with high-quality fresh Napier grass, testing a practical feeding strategy to optimize the FA profile of crossbred cattle without compromising productivity. The present research aimed) (1) to investigate and compare the types and quantities of the fat percentage of beef from BC and EB cattle with that of NB currently collected from local markets in the Nakhon Ratchasima province. Increasing the intake of roughage is a known method to increase n-3 FAs (specifically C18:3n-3) in beef because roughage is a primary source of these healthy fats. The researchers hypothesized that replacing low-quality rice straw with high-quality fresh grass while reducing concentrate would improve the n-6/n-3 ratio without negatively affecting growth or meat quality. This leads to the second objective of the project, which is: (2) to study the effect of using high-quality roughage (fresh Napier grass) to reduce the amount of concentrate feed, measuring the impact on growth performance, carcass quality, and the ensuing FAs composition, especially to enhance n-3 FA content and reduce the n-6/n-3 ratio in beef.

INTRODUCTION

Current study on human nutrition have raised awareness and encouraged consumers to focus on nutritious foods for good health, including health products from livestock, the quality of which suits their needs (Davis et al., 2022). In livestock products, beef is one of the widely consumed meat products to fulfill nutritional needs (Lui et al., 2022). FAOSTAT (2025) reported that producing animals/slaughtered for meat of cattle with bone, fresh or chilled was 309.9 million, the production of meat from cattle was 69.5 million tons, which is lower than that of meat from pigs and chicken. Gross production value of meat of cattle with the bone, fresh or chilled, and meat of cattle with the bone, fresh or chilled (indigenous) in 2023, was 294.9 billion USD and 283.5 billion USD, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2025). However, health concerns have led to a focus on the fat content and fatty acid (FA) composition of beef (Davis et al., 2022). Certain human disorders may be linked to high saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in particular (Hocquette et al., 2005). Diet, breed, and slaughter age impact the FA composition in the intramuscular fat of beef cattle (Park et al., 2018). Currently, cattle fattening uses high-nutritious concentrated feed to increase the cattle’s growth rate. However, it was discovered that this results in cattle having an unbalanced proportion of n-6/n-3 fatty acids (FA), which can increase the risk of disease in consumers. The proportion of n-6/n-3 FA desires to be adjusted, with an increase in good quality roughage resulting in a higher amount of n-3 FA. In addition, fattening cattle using a modern farming style that feeds concentrates leads to an imbalanced n-6/n-3 FA ratio (Nuernberg et al., 2005; Varre et al., 2026). C18:2n-6 FA is generally high in beef due to feeding concentrates. Commercial beef therefore tends to have a relatively high n-6/n-3 FA ratio (>5:1), consistent with Enser et al. (1998) reported that adipose tissues from animals raised on pasture showed higher levels of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) but concentrate-based diets had higher levels of n-6 PUFA. Westernized diets contain high amounts of n-6 FAs, resulting in an n-6:n-3 ratio of 10:1 to 20:1, increasing the risk of developing inflammatory disorders such as obesity (Torres-Castillo et al., 2018). The consumption of such red meat increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases (Hausen et al., 2017; Cao et al., 2024).

Studies have recommended a reduced consumption of fatty foods and a mitigation of the risk of various diseases (Gonzalez-Becerra et al., 2023) when the n-6/n-3 FA ratio was between 4:1 and 5:1 (Zhang et al., 2024). It is therefore important to enhance the proportion of n-3 FAs, one method for which is an adjustment in the proportion of roughage, by increasing the amount of roughage and decreasing concentrates for cattle (Enser et al., 1998). Modifications in the amount of roughage elevate n-3 FA intake in cattle (Zhu et al., 2022). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernâhrung (DGE), (2000) reported that reducing the n-6/n-3 FA ratio in the meat consumed to <5:1 reduces the risk of disease. However, changing the FA ratio in beef may affect the flavor; the fat contained in meat improves its flavor (Arshad et al., 2018). Additionally, the color of fat is influenced by FAs (Wood et al., 2003). Moloney et al. (2008) increasing roughage and decreasing concentrate feeding for beef cattle had no effect on meat quality in terms of tenderness, texture, flavor, and chewiness.

Indigenous Thai cattle and crossbred with Brahman or other Europe breeds distributed about 47.94% and 47.31% of the total of 9,904,037 beef cattle in Thailand, respectively (DLD, 2024). The top five regions in the Northeast of Thailand produce the greatest beef cattle, and Nakhon Ratchasima province has the second largest population of beef cattle (DLD, 2024). Native and their Brahman crossbreeds have a high percentage of lean, tenderness, and low fat percentage (Pilajun et al., 2021), growth rate, carcass percentage, and marbling (Opatpatanakit et al., 2007). Most of them are raised generally, on local natural feed (such as low-cost agricultural feedstuffs by-products or residues of rice, cassava, sugarcane (Wanapat, 1999). In Northeast Thailand, the lack of high-quality roughage during the dry season is a significant issue; common practice for farmers is to supplement concentrate with rice straw as roughage for beef cattle (Pilajun et al., 2021). Nevertheless, its nutritional quality is inferior to that of grasses (Aquino et al., 2019), leading to a lower marbling score and diminishing its appeal in Thailand's high-end beef markets. The middle and high-end beef markets are commercial production that focuses on producing high-quality meat, breed quality, which are often Bos taurus crossbreeds (e.g., Charolais, Limousin, Simmental, and Angus) (DLD, 2010), to improve their production traits (Pilajun et al., 2021). This is consistent with Bunmee et al. (2018) reporting that feedlot cattle crossbred with Charolais at a rate of more than 50% produced high-quality meat in Thailand. This entails overseeing high-quality feed and rearing fattening cattle with concentrated feed to accelerate growth and yield marbling, tenderness, and superior meat quality per market requirements.

Modern consumers are increasingly health-conscious and seek products with higher nutritional value. Because different cattle breeds and management systems result in different fat depositions, there is a need to benchmark the existing FA levels in the local market. While NB beef is known for its lean quality, commercial beef production in Thailand is dominated by BC and EB to meet market demands for growth and marbling. However, there is a lack of comprehensive data on how these popular crossbreds, under current market conditions, compare to native breeds in terms of health-related FA profiles. Therefore, Experiment I was designed to benchmark the current status of beef quality in local markets, specifically identifying the nutritional gaps in crossbred beef compared to the healthier profile of native cattle. Based on the findings from Experiment I, which highlighted the unbalanced n-6/n-3 ratio in crossbreds typically fed high-concentrate and low-quality roughage diets, Experiment II was subsequently conducted as a strategic intervention. It aimed to bridge this identified quality gap by substituting low-quality rice straw with high-quality fresh Napier grass, testing a practical feeding strategy to optimize the FA profile of crossbred cattle without compromising productivity. The present research aimed) (1) to investigate and compare the types and quantities of the fat percentage of beef from BC and EB cattle with that of NB currently collected from local markets in the Nakhon Ratchasima province. Increasing the intake of roughage is a known method to increase n-3 FAs (specifically C18:3n-3) in beef because roughage is a primary source of these healthy fats. The researchers hypothesized that replacing low-quality rice straw with high-quality fresh grass while reducing concentrate would improve the n-6/n-3 ratio without negatively affecting growth or meat quality. This leads to the second objective of the project, which is: (2) to study the effect of using high-quality roughage (fresh Napier grass) to reduce the amount of concentrate feed, measuring the impact on growth performance, carcass quality, and the ensuing FAs composition, especially to enhance n-3 FA content and reduce the n-6/n-3 ratio in beef.

RESULTS

Chemical and fatty acid composition of beef in local fresh markets

EB beef had a significantly higher moisture content than NB and BC beef (P < 0.01) (Table 1). As a result, EB and BC had more fat than NB. However, the protein content in both did not differ statistically. EB and BC showed markedly higher SFA than NB (P < 0.01), which consisted of C12:0, C16:0, and C18:0 FAs. The three types of meat presented no differences in the accumulation of MUFAs (P > 0.05). The muscle accumulation of n-6 FA type PUFAs (C18:2n6t, C18:2n6c, and C20:4n6) did not alter remarkably in NB and EB; nonetheless, they were lower than BC with statistical significance (P < 0.01). The muscle n-3 FAs (C18:3n3 and C20:5n3) in NB demonstrated a statistically marked elevated accumulation than BC and EB (P < 0.01), which affected the n6/n3 FA ratio in NB. NB had a lower n6/n3 FA ratio in the muscles than BC and EB which was statistically relevant (P < 0.01).

Table 1. Chemical and fatty acid composition of beef in experiment I.

Note: ^{a, b, c} Mean within the row in which different superscripts vary (P < 0.01); NB, Native beef; BC, Brahman crossbred beef; EB, Europe crossbred beef; SEM, Standard error of the mean; SFA, Sum of the saturated fatty acids from C4:0–C20:0; MUFA, Sum of the monounsaturated fatty acids from C14:1–C22:1; PUFA, Sum of the polyunsaturated FAs from C18:2–C22:6; total n-3, Sum of the n3 fatty acids C18:3n-3–C22:6n-3; total n-6, Sum of the n6 fatty acids C18:2n-6–C22:4n-6.

Chemical composition and estimation of energy in concentrate and roughage

The chemical composition and estimation of energy in the 14% CP concentrate and roughage in Experiment II (Table 2), and the FA composition of the concentrate and roughage used in Experiment II (Table 3) are mentioned. Fresh Napier grass contains 10.07% CP, which is more than double the 4.00% CP found in rice straw (Table 2), while the fat content in the fresh grass is 1.78%, compared to only 0.81% in the rice straw. Fresh Napier grass contains 36.04% CF, while rice straw contains 39.79%, and it has a much lower lignin content (2.62%) than rice straw (6.34%). The sources provide specific comparative metrics (Table 2): Fresh Napier grass has a higher TDN (55.05%) than rice straw (46.14%). The energy available for weight gain is nearly triple in fresh grass (0.66 Mcal/kg) compared to rice straw (0.23 Mcal/kg). Fresh Napier grass provides 2.51 Mcal/kg, while rice straw provides 2.03 Mcal/kg. 3) Finally, FA profile: the presence of alpha-linolenic acid (n-3) is a critical criterion for "high quality" in this study. Fresh Napier grass contains 49.02% n-3 FAs (C18:3n3), whereas rice straw contains only 6.11% as shown in Table 3.

Table 2. Chemical composition and energy evaluation of the concentrate and roughage (% of DM) in Experiment II.

Note: *Ingredients of concentrate (% of DM) contain 48% cassava pulp, 9% cassava chips, 17% rice bran, 6% molasses, 6% soybean meal, 10% palm kernel, 2% urea, 1.6% mineral P16, and 0.4% premix. The value indicates the mean; TDN_1X (%), Total digestible nutrients = tdNFC + tdCP + (tdFA x 2.25) + tdNDF–7 (NRC, 2001); DE_1X (Mcal/kg), Digestible energy = [(tdNFC/100) x 4.2] + [(tdNDF/100) x 4.2] + [(tdCP/100) x 5.6] + [(FA/100) x 9.4]–0.3. ME_p (Mcal/kg), Metabolizable energy = 0.82 x DE (NRC, 1996); NE_m (Mcal/kg), Net energy for maintenance = 1.37ME–0.138ME2 + 0.0105ME3–1.12 (NRC, 1996); NE_g (Mcal/kg), Net energy for growth = 1.42ME–0.174ME2 + 0.0122ME3–1.65 (NRC, 1996).

Table 3. Fatty acid composition of the concentrate and roughage in Experiment II.

Note: The value indicates the mean; Saturated fatty acid = Sum of the saturated fatty acids from C4:0–C20:0; Monounsaturated fatty acid = Sum of the monounsaturated fatty acids from C14:1–C22:1; Polyunsaturated fatty acids = Sum of the polyunsaturated fatty acids from C18:2–C22:6; PUFA:SFA, Polyunsaturated fatty acids:Saturated fatty acid.

Growth and feed efficiencies of beef cattle

The BW and growth rates of the indigenous Brahman x crossbred cattle were not affected in the HCRS and LCFG groups (Table 4). Dry matter (DM), CP, ether extract (EE) and NEg intake of concentrated feed in HCRS was significantly higher than LCFG (P < 0.05). CP and EE intake of roughage was markedly higher in LCFG than in HCRS (P < 0.05). Concerning the high roughage quality feeding results, it was revealed that the HCRS group received a high level of concentrate, which resulted in enhanced DM, CP, EE, and NEg intake compared to LCFG, due to the fact that the concentrate contained high levels of CP, EE, and NEg. However, total DM and EE intake showed no statistically significant difference between the HCRS and LCFG groups. Although HCRS comprised a high level concentrate since they received rice straw which was of inferior quality than fresh grass.

Table 4. Effects of good quality roughage on the growth and feed intake of beef cattle.

Note: ^{a, b} Values with different superscripts in the same row vary significantly (P < 0.05); The value indicates the mean ± SD; HCRS, high-level concentrate with rice straw; LCFG, low level concentrate with fresh grass; NEg, net energy for growth.

Carcass and meat quality of beef cattle

The carcass weight of cattle given the HCRS and LCFG diets was unaffected; the carcass percentage, 12^th rib back fat, and pH changes of the LL and SM at 45 min after slaughter and dissection are shown in Table 5. The red meat color values (L*, a*, b*) of the LL and SM of cattle fed with the HCRS and LCFG diets were not affected (Table 5). The LCFG-treated group had a statistically higher percentage of drip loss in LL and SM than the HCRS-treated group (P < 0.05). However, the proportions of boiling loss, thawing loss, grill loss of LL and SM when fed with different diets did not vary with statistical significance. The HCRS and LCFG diet fed to cattle did not affect the firmness of the LL or SM (Table 5). The firmness of red meat depends on the type of animal, breed, muscle type, amount of fat in the meat, chemical changes in muscles after slaughter, and curing time.

Table 5. Effects of high level concentrate with rice straw (HCRS) and low level concentrate with fresh grass (LCFG) on carcass and meat qualities of beef cattle.

Note: ^{a, b} Values with different superscripts in the same row vary significantly (P < 0.05); The value indicates the mean ± SD. HCRS, high-level concentrate with rice straw; LCFG, low level concentrate with fresh grass; NEg, net energy for growth; LL, longissimus lumborum; SM, semimembranosus; TBARS, Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances.

Chemical composition and fatty acid composition of beef cattle

The HCRS and LCFG diet did not influence the chemical composition of the LL and SM (Table 6). There was no statistically significant difference in the PUFA content between LL and SM when cattle were fed HCRS or LCFG diets (Table 7). The n-6 PUFA levels of each type in the LL and SM muscles did not vary remarkably from each other. Beef cattle fed on the LCFA diet had a statistically significant enhancement in total n-3 in the SM compared to those fed with the HCRS diet (1.15 and 0.45, respectively) (P < 0.01; Table 7). LCFG- and HCRS-fed cattle did not exhibit any statistically significant differences in the contents of C18:2n6 and PUFAs in either LL or SM. The LCFG-fed group exhibited a substantially higher C18:3n3 content in the SM than the HCRS (P < 0.01). In this study, we observed that the LL and SM muscles' chemical composition was unaffected by the HCRS and LCFG diet.

Table 6. Effects of good quality roughage on the chemical composition of beef cattle meat.

Note: The value indicates the means ± SD; HCRS, high level concentrate with rice straw; LCFG, low level concentrate with fresh grass; LL, longissimus lumborum muscle; SM, semimembranosus muscle.

Table 7. Effect of good quality roughage on the fatty acid composition of the longissimus lumborum and semimembranosus muscles (% of total fatty acids) when cattle were fed with HCRS and LCFG.

Note: The value indicates the mean  ±  SD; ^a-b Values with different superscripts in the same row vary significantly (P < 0.01); HCRS, high level concentrate with rice straw; LCFG, low level concentrate with fresh grass; LL, longissimus lumborum muscle; SM, semimembranosus muscle; SFA, saturated fatty acid; MUFA = monounsaturated fatty acid; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids; SFA, Sum of the saturated fatty acids from C4:0–C20:0; MUFA, =Sum of the monounsaturated fatty acids from C14:1–C22:1; PUFA, Sum of the polyunsaturated fatty acids from C18:2–C22:6; total n-3, Sum of the n3 fatty acids C18:3n-3–C22:6n-3, total n-6, Sum of the n6 fatty acids C18:2n-6–C22:4n-6.

DISCUSSION

Nutrition is a primary factor determining the muscle fat composition of beef cattle, which directly impacts carcass quality. Beef cattle were fed different diets, the accumulation of fat in muscles varied remarkably Cooke et al. (2004). The main goals of the beef cattle raising system were to improve growth efficiency, carcass quality, and meat quality, where dietary was the main factor affecting meat quality (Sami et al., 2004). Production costs can be reduced in farm systems where fresh grass is used as the main roughage (Keane and Allen, 1998). However, when compared to meat obtained from concentrated feed systems, the meat quality was different (Nuernberg et al., 2005). NB fattening cattle were not managed by a feed management system but fed local natural feed which is the beef at the lower-end of the market in Thailand. Nevertheless, the farm system that was used to raise Brahman and European crossbred fattening beef cattle required a final feed management phase of beef cattle prior to slaughter which focused on accelerating high amount of concentrate for the purpose of increasing lipids, responding to consumer demand at the higher end of the market (DLD, 2012). According to Duckett and Pavan (2024), beef fat was directly proportional to the amount of concentrate received by the cattle, which has a higher fat content than beef cattle fed on a low or unconcentrated diet. In addition, fat is stored intramuscularly in the carcass as a result of phenotypic and genetic factors (De et al., 2004). De novo FA synthesis and exogenous FA absorption lead to fat accumulation. In addition, the amount of FA accumulation in meat also depends on breed and sex (Schumacher et al., 2022). For this reason, EB and BC beef had a higher percentage of fat than NB.

Analysis of the types and quantities of FAs in the three beef cattle breeds revealed significant differences in fatty acid composition and proportions, which affect nutritional value and consumer health. Fattening cattle with concentrate containing a high amount of n-6 concentrations (BC and EB) may be linked to high-fat contents, effects on beef quality, and consumer preference (Massiera et al., 2010), indicating beef from a grass-fed system only (NB), which is high in n-3 FA. Chaiwang et al. (2015) reported that Thai Indigenous Upland cattle exhibited enhanced health benefits regarding their fatty acid composition; specifically, they had lower levels of SFA and higher levels of EPA, DHA, PUFA, and total n-3 compared to crossbred cattle with a high proportion of Charolais blood. The United States consumes a large amount of red meat which is rapidly increasing, thereby enhancing the risk of cancer and atherosclerosis (Popkin, 2009). The insufficient intake of n-3 elevates mortality in middle-aged and older people (Sinha et al., 2009). Gutierres et al. (2025) recommends that consumers should consume foods that contain higher amounts of n-3 FA relative to n-6 FA. In addition, NB beef had a lower proportion of n-6/n-3 FA than BC and EB at those levels which were most researched, suggesting that it may have the potential to prevent heart disease (4:1 to 5:1) (Zhang et al., 2024). However, the factors affecting FA accumulation in meat, apart from dietary factors, also depend on breed (Schumacher et al., 2022).

In the sources, the term "high-quality roughage" is specifically defined by comparing fresh Napier grass against low-quality rice straw. The definition of "quality" is based on two primary metrics: nutrient density, energy/digestibility values, and fatty acid profile (Table 2), and one specific study metric in Table 3. 1) Chemical composition: the sources define high-quality roughage as having significantly higher levels of essential nutrients in terms of CP and EE content compared to standard agricultural by-products like rice straw. Higher levels of "indigestible" fiber are indicative of lower quality roughage. Because it contains fewer structural elements that impede digestion, the premium fresh Napier grass utilized in this study was harvested between 35 and 45 days of age. 2) Digestibility and energy metrics: quality is also measured by the ruminant's ability to extract energy from the feed digestibility in terms of TDN, NEg, and DE. Evaluating the nutritional value and fatty acid ratios of concentrate and rice straw revealed the specific characteristics of the main feed ingredients that affect nutrient intake and fatty acid profiles in beef cattle. An analysis of the nutritional values and FA ratios of concentrate and rice straw was conducted which found that concentrates had nutritional value similar to Suksombat et al. (2016). The concentrate was relatively high in C16:0, C18:1n9c, and C18:2n6c FAs. Rice bran and palm kernel are common raw material ingredients, both of which contain excessive amounts of C16:0, C18:1n9c, and C18:2n6c FAs, consistent with Suksombat et al. (2018) and Chompoo et al. (2019). In general, rice straw (Oryza sativa L.) has a high NDF and ADF, low energy, as well as low CP (Aquino et al., 2019). It had a high DM content of 91.1–92.3% and low CP ranging from 1.3% to 4% (Suksombat et al., 2016; Srisaikham and Lounglawan, 2021). Its use is limited due to the low digestibility of the nutrients (Aquino et al., 2019). Its C16:0 FA content is quite high, consistent with Zemnukhova et al. (2015), who studied the FA types in rice straw and found most of the FA to consist of saturated FAs at 67.75% of the total; the C16:0 FA content was as high of the total FA; however, the fat in rice straw was rather low than the fresh Napier grass used in the experiment and the nutrient value and FA ratio were similar to those reported in previous studies (Noosen et al., 2017). This makes fresh grass a superior source for improving the nutritional profile of the resulting beef.

Maintained growth performance and feed efficiency in the LCFG group, despite a 2 kg/day reduction in concentrate input, is attributed to nutritional compensation from high-quality forage. While rice straw restricts nutrient intake due to its high indigestible fiber (52.34% ADF, 6.34% lignin) and low crude protein (4.00%) (Aquino et al., 2019), fresh Pakchong Napier grass harvested at the optimal vegetative stage provides a superior nutrient profile (10.07% CP, 55.05% TDN). Crucially, the net energy for gain (NEg) of fresh grass (0.66 Mcal/kg) is nearly threefold higher than that of rice straw (0.23 Mcal/kg). This high nutrient density and improved digestibility fully compensated for the energy and protein deficit from reduced concentrate, thereby preserving the growth potential and carcass traits of the cattle (Kang et al., 2022; Han et al., 2024).

Analysis of meat quality reveals that multiple factors affect muscle and consumption characteristics. The increase in acidity at 24 h was caused by the anaerobic activity of muscles, thus converting the pyruvate produced by glycolysis to lactic acid (LA) which may have later infiltrated other tissues and carried by the circulatory system to form glycogen, of which ~80% was further converted to LA. The amount of LA produced depended on the dieting, relaxation, and stress of animals prior to slaughter. It affected the reduction of pH (Li et al., 2014). Muscle fibers retain water well and when cooked they lose less water, making the meat tender and flavorful. Young meat was more moist than that from older animals. On comparing to a prior report, an increase in the age of Eastern Anatolian Red bulls resulted in lower tenderness, flavor intensity, and acceptability scores (Kopuzlu et al., 2018), it could be concluded that as age increased, the cooking yield increased greatly, or the age of slaughter had a positive impact on the majority of eating quality characteristics and color parameters. Wang et al. (2019) reported that elevated intramuscular fat might enhance water retention by minimizing drip and cooking losses. Juiciness gives the impression that the meat is delicious. In addition, while chewing, the mash in the mouth lubricates the chewing process, making it easy to chew before swallowing, which also causes salivation (Pematilleke et al., 2021).

Tenderness and oxidation level in beef are important indicators of texture quality and shelf life, influenced by the age of the animal and the type of feed it consumes. Tenderness of the meat directly impacts the meat texture which also affects its palatability (O'Quinn et al., 2018). Meat tenderness is more influenced by the age of the animal than by the amount of intramuscular fat (which affects only 5-10%) (Lucero-Borja et al., 2014). The lower TBARS values observed in fresh grass may be attributed to the higher concentrations of α-tocopherol and other antioxidant vitamins present in fresh forage, which contribute to retarding lipid oxidation during storage. Siphambili et al. (2020) found that the TBAR value of beef cattle fed a fresh grass diet was lower than that of cattle fed a high concentrate diet, while feeding on fresh grass containing alpha-tocopherol and vitamins resulted in lower TBAR values. Terevinto et al. (2023) found that meat from pasture-fed Aberdeen Angus steers had lower levels of TBARS during refrigerated storage than meat from concentrate fed ones.

The chemical composition of beef muscle is a direct result of nutritional balance, particularly the total energy and protein intake of the animal, which affects fat accumulation and protein structure in beef. Han et al. (2024) reported that meat chemistry is a result of nutritional balance, especially the total energy of feed and the total energy intake by animals which affect the fat accumulation in meat. Therefore, if animals did not receive different levels of energy, there was no variation in the fat composition of the meat. However, Marques et al. (2006) who studied LL muscles, reported that total protein intake influenced the proportion of protein in meat by ~20%, which improved the chemical composition of the meat depending on the nutritional composition of the feed that the animals received, their heredity, and physiology. The difference in the accumulation of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in beef depends on the biohydrogenation process within the digestive system. The cattle feed contains ~1%–4% fat, of which PUFAs are composed of linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) and α-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3n3). Fatty feed is digested by microbial lipases, producing PUFAs that are toxic to ruminal microorganisms (Jenkins et al., 2008) and impede the biohydrogenation of PUFA, resulting in PUFA flowing through the lower gastrointestinal tract, then being absorbed and deposited in the cattle. This may be because rumen microorganisms and cattle are capable of spontaneous synthesis of both types of FAs, so the FA content did not vary (Kucuk et al., 2008).

The accumulation of FAs in beef is a result of the synergistic action between microbial biohydrogenation and dietary fats. Normally, beef cattle are fed a diet high in C18:2n6 PUFA content. Animals fed a diet rich in PUFAs result in PUFAs in the products (Duckett et al., 2009). They cannot be synthesized by bacteria except for cyanobacteria. Therefore, the PUFA found in the rumen comes from feeding, with 65% of FAs generated by biohydrogenation, and the remaining 35% were synthesized as components of microbial lipids, consisting of branched-chain FAs namely isobutyrate, isovalerate, and 2-methylbutyrate. These are the final products of carbohydrate fermentation and ~5% is passivated fat unchanged by microorganisms, which is mainly PUFA (Jenkins et al., 2008).

However, feeding high-quality roughage such as fresh grass can elevate n-3 levels in meat, which was consistent with the observations of Daley et al. (2010) who found that beef cattle fed with high amounts of roughage resulted in improved n-3 FA levels, which is healthy for consumers. In addition, Scollan et al. (2006) reported that in the final stage of fattening, the amount of n-3 was higher in the meat from cattle fed with fresh grass as a roughage source than in those fed on concentrated feed with roughage. Fresh grass is rich in alpha‑linolenic acid (C18:3 n‑3, ALA), the primary n‑3 fatty acid in forages (Davis et al., 2022). In contrast, concentrate-based diets are abundant in n‑6 fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid (C18:2 n‑6) (Warren et al., 2008). Moreover, n‑3 and n‑6 fatty acids share common desaturation enzymes (e.g., Δ‑6 desaturase) in their metabolic pathways, which influences their relative metabolism and deposition (Emery et al., 2013).  The CLA contents in LL and SM muscles of beef cattle fed with the HCRS and LCFG diets did not vary markedly since the precursor of CLA is C18:2n6, which occurs in the isomerization to c9, t11-C18:2, and hydrogenate to t11-18:1 (Schiavon et al., 2019). This compound is a precursor to CLA synthesis in the muscles (Nogoy et al., 2022). Interestingly, beef cattle fed on higher n-3 content resulted in a decrease in the n-6/n-3 ratio in beef cattle. In the feeding system using fresh grass and supplemented with sunflower oil, it was found that the proportion of PUFA n-6/n-3 in meat was 1.46 and 2.24, respectively (P <0.05) (Noci et al., 2007). As a result, the SM was reduced to the recommended level for consumers (4.62:1) (Table 7), which is the level recommended by most studies for the prevention of heart disease (4:1 to 7.5:1) (Yang et al., 2023).

These findings offer critical insights for sustainable beef production in Thailand, particularly in the Northeast where seasonal forage scarcity forces a heavy reliance on low-quality rice straw. Transitioning to high-quality fresh forage management systems enables farmers to reduce expensive concentrate inputs without sacrificing growth performance, directly lowering overall production costs (Keane and Allen, 1998). Moreover, benchmarking results from Experiment 1 reveal that Thai-Native beef inherently possesses a superior nutritional profile, characterized by high n-3 FA and the lowest n-6/n-3 ratio (3.10:1), which aligns with the international health threshold (<5:1) for preventing cardiovascular diseases (Zhang et al., 2024). This positions indigenous Thai-Native cattle—historically viewed as low-value livestock—as a premium, health-compliant commodity for the growing health-conscious market, fostering economic sustainability for smallholder farmers (Chaiwang et al., 2015).

While this study provides valuable insights, certain limitations in experimental design must be acknowledged. In Experiment 1, market sampling from local slaughterhouses reflects real-world market baselines but introduces systemic variations. Factors such as exact animal backgrounds, pre-slaughter feeding regimes, and precise slaughter ages could not be tightly controlled, potentially increasing data variance. In Experiment 2, although the use of 10 animals per group provided adequate statistical power for growth performance and feed intake metrics, evaluating carcass traits and meat quality was restricted to a random subset of 4 animals per group (8 in total). This relatively low slaughter number represents a constraint that may reduce the statistical power to detect subtle differences in highly variable traits like marbling score. Future studies should scale up slaughter numbers to validate these findings for large-scale industrial adoption.

CONCLUSION

The study concludes that distinct differences in fatty acid profiles exist among the beef types available in local markets. These variations are attributed to the combined effects of animal breed and their respective production backgrounds. Native beef exhibits a naturally healthier FA profile, while the nutritional quality gap identified in crossbred beef is likely a result of intensive grain-feeding, which can be effectively mitigated through the forage management strategies proven by reducing concentrate feed by providing high-quality roughage (such as fresh Napier grass), which has no negative impact on growth performance, carcass characteristics, or meat quality. This management approach yields beef with a more balanced n-6/n-3 FA ratio, aligning with the recommended health levels for human consumption. Therefore, to enhance the nutritional profile of beef, it is recommended to increase n-3 intake by substituting low-quality roughage with high-quality fresh grass while reducing concentrate levels or through direct n-3 FA supplementation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to express thanks to Suranaree University of Technology Farm, and the Institute of Research and Development at the School of Animal Technology and Innovation, Institute of Agricultural Technology, Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand, which provided material support.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Pitunart Noosen: Conceptualization (Lead); Methodology (Lead); Formal Analysis (Equal); Investigation (Equal); Validation; Writing - Review & Editing (Equal); Wisitiporn Suksombat: Conceptualization (Lead); Methodology (Equal); Writing – Editing (Equal); Supreena Srisaikham: Investigate (Equal), Formal Analysis (Equal), Data Curation (Equal), Writing -Original Draft (Lead), Writing Review & Editing (Equal), Visualization (Lead); Pipat Lounglawan: Conceptualization (Lead); Methodology (Lead); Formal Analysis (Equal); Investigation (Equal); Writing - Review & Editing (Equal); Project Administration (Lead); Funding Acquisition (Lead).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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