Autonomy, Fear of Missing Out, Social Support and Psychological Well-Being Among Malaysian Students

ABSTRACT

Psychological well-being plays an essential role in one’s overall health. Previous studies have suggested that autonomy, fear of missing out (FoMO) and social support are significant contributing factors of one’s psychological well-being. However, studies on how these factors impact psychological well-being in Malaysia are scarce. A study of 154 students in Malaysia (56 males, 98 females) between the ages of 18 – 24 was done to investigate how social support from family and friends, fear of missing out, and autonomy impact psychological well-being. Participants were recruited virtually and were given questionnaires via an online survey tool, Qualtrics. Results show that students who had higher social support and autonomy had better psychological well-being, whereas students who had higher fear of missing out had poorer psychological well-being. In the multiple regression analysis, autonomy, fear of missing out and social support were found to significantly predict psychological well-being, with fear of missing out emerging as the strongest predictor. All in all, the findings of this study indicate that having good relationships with friends and family, a higher degree of autonomy, and being satisfied with one’s own experiences are important factors for one’s psychological well-being.

Keywords: Autonomy, FoMO, Psychological Well-being, Social Support, University students

INTRODUCTION

The Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network (2016) states that at least one in four people suffer from a mental disorder at least once in their lifetime. Among the major common mental disorders, depression was found to be the most common mental illness, followed by bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and anxiety disorders. University students are perceived to be more susceptible to mental health issues and psychological distress as they are exposed to numerous stressors such as academic stress, transition to university life, and financial pressure (Priesack & Alcock, 2015). A meta-analysis done by Ibrahim et al. (2013) revealed that university students showed higher symptoms of depression compared to the general population, with a prevalence of 30.6%. Furthermore, past studies revealed that first-year university students were more prone to experience anxiety (Stallman, 2010), had increased alcohol consumption, and drug abuse (Geisner et al., 2012). With the Covid-19 pandemic occurring around the world, the mental well-being of university students 0

Low- and middle-income countries, including Malaysia, face the highest risk of mental health issues, accounting for 73% of global suicides (WHO, 2024). According to the Malaysian Youth Mental Health Index (Institute for Youth Research Malaysia, 2024), one in ten Malaysian youths exhibited suicidal tendencies in 2023. In Malaysia, suicide remains a highly sensitive topic due to the influence of religious beliefs. As a multicultural nation, many religions, including Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism, regard suicide as a sinful act, which contributes to the stigma surrounding the issue (Bahar et al., 2015). This highlights the critical need for research on psychological well-being, particularly among university students in Malaysia.

Over the past decade, research on psychological well-being has expanded significantly. Seligman’s (2011) theory identifies five core elements of psychological well-being: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishments, which are collectively known as the PERMA model. Each element uniquely contributes to well-being and plays a crucial role in fostering individuals' optimal functioning (Seligman, 2011).

Numerous studies have found that good psychological well-being has contributed to greater life satisfaction, improved physical health, increased life expectancy, higher self-esteem (Klainin-Yobas et al., 2016; Ryff & Singer, 2008; Xiang et al., 2019), and better academic performance (Norvilitis & Reid, 2012). The self-determination theory (SDT) by Ryan and Deci (2000) outlines how human motivation is one factor which contributes to one’s vitality and psychological well-being. According to the SDT, there are three basic psychological needs namely autonomy, competence and relatedness. These needs have to be fulfilled for optimal growth. Participants who reported higher satisfaction in these three areas had higher intrinsic motivation, which contribute to higher self-determination, resulting in higher life satisfaction and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The need for competence has been shown to be a strong predictor of well-being amidst the Covid-19 pandemic (Cantarero et al., 2020), whereas the role of autonomy and relatedness are less understood amidst the pandemic. Therefore, this study focused on the autonomy and relatedness needs by examing the effect of autonomy, fear of missing out (FoMO) and social support on psychological well-being among Malaysian students.

Autonomy and Psychological Well-being

According to Ryan and Deci (2006), autonomy is defined as the “regulation of the self” and plays an essential role in well-being. Autonomy is one of the basic psychological needs in the self-determination theory and has been shown to be an important factor in one’s life. Individuals with a greater sense of autonomy have been associated with higher well-being (Weinstein et al., 2011), creativity (Roth et al., 2007), and life satisfaction (Hofmann et al., 2014). Cordeiro et al. (2016) found that autonomy satisfaction (i.e., how much satisfaction one receives from being autonomous) predicted life satisfaction and vitality among students. Similarly, Paradnikė and Bandzevičienė (2015) found that one component of autonomy which is authorship/self-congruence (i.e., how much individuals see themselves as the author of their behaviours) significantly predicted life satisfaction among university students. This result showed that when someone is able to be responsible for their behaviour, they will have a higher life satisfaction. Taken together, these findings suggested that autonomy is linked to one’s well-being.

However, majority of studies on autonomy and psychological well-being have been conducted in the western countries such as America and Europe where individualistic cultures are practiced (Chirkov, 2008). However, not many studies have been conducted in collectivistic cultures. Moreover, parenting practices in collectivistic societies place a heavy emphasis on obedience following directives from parents (Shwalb & Hossain, 2017). Thus, this practice may impede autonomy among individuals in a collectivistic society.

Cross and Gore (2003) argued that people living in collectivistic cultures will have an inner conflict between the desire for autonomy and maintaining social harmony with others around them. In other words, individuals living in collectivistic societies are less likely to express freedom and autonomy as the collectivistic culture emphasizes on the maintaininence of social harmony. Thus, this “inner tension” may lower well-being (Burroughs et al., 2002). Nevertheless, a recent study in Malaysia by Gan et al. (2020) suggested that children who receive lower autonomy support from parents experienced more difficulties in life such as peer and conduct problems. Chen et al. (2015) studied autonomy across different cultures and found that autonomy significantly contributed to the well-being of individuals from both individualistic and collectivistic cultures. However, autonomy was found to have a weaker predicting effect on well-being in collectivistic cultures compared to individualistic cultures (Church et al., 2013). All in all, these studies demonstrated the importance of studying the effect of autonomy on psychological well-being in collectivistic cultures.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and Psychological Well-being

Przybylski et al. (2013) defined the fear of missing out (FoMO) as “the pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent”, and is characterized by “the desire to stay continually connected with what others are doing”. It was found that individuals were more likely to experience FoMO if their basic psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, relatedness and competence) are not satisfied (Przybylski et al., 2013). Higher FoMO has been found to be related to higher level of depressive symptoms, physical symptoms such as headaches, chest pain and sore throat (Baker et al., 2016), stress, negative affect (Milyavskaya et al., 2018), loneliness, sleep disturbance and lower self-esteem (Barry & Wong, 2020).

Among university students, FoMO has also been seen to have links with social media usage (Alt, 2015). Przybylski et al. (2013) highlighted that individuals with high fear of missing out tend to use their phones more often to check social media sites while driving or in class. Furthermore, Hertz et al. (2015) found that FoMO invoked negative feelings among undergraduate students, causing anxiousness. Interestingly, some students used social media to evoke feelings of FoMO among other friends. Jordan et al. (2011) outlined that the information posted online about people’s lifestyles is often skewed towards the positive end. This causes individuals to misperceive that others are having a more pleasurable and enjoyable life than they are. As a result of seeing others having a happier and more successful life, people with high levels of FoMO are more likely to feel distressed, anxious, and have lower self-esteem (Przybylski et al., 2013).

Contrary to these findings (Alt, 2015; Chai et al., 2019; Przybylski et al., 2013), recent studies have suggested that FoMO is beneficial to one’s well-being. Higher levels of FoMO were found to be related to higher social media intensity which strengthens the social connections of an individual. The social supports obtained from these social interactions are then able to promote well-being positively (Chai et al., 2019; Roberts & David, 2019). Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the impact of FoMO on one’s well-being due to the contradictory outcomes from past studies. 

Social support and Psychological Well-being

According to Ryan and Deci (2006), relatedness is a basic psychological need essential for self-regulation and is defined as “the desire to feel connected to others”. The relatedness needs could be satisfied by having social support from various dimensions such as family and friends.  Perceived social support was found to significantly predict life satisfaction, negative affect, and well-being (Ammar et al., 2013; Siedlecki et al., 2014). Specifically, studies have shown that friends and family were strong predictors of well-being (Ammar et al., 2013; Gülaçtı, 2010).

Moreover, young adults in Lambert et al. (2010) remarked that friends and family are major sources in making their lives meaningful, with family being the strongest source of meaningfulness. In the context of university students, one protective factor against depression is perceived social support (Santini et al., 2015), which could reduce academic stress (Renk & Smith, 2007), and plays a big role in the students’ happiness, academic achievements, and their ability to adapt with university life (Adyani et al., 2019).

Researchers also outline that culture plays an essential role in psychological well-being whereby collectivistic cultures place a strong emphasis on community within the family (Ammar et al., 2013). Eskin (2013) remarks that people in a collectivistic society exhibit features such as the desire to maintain peace and harmony in the group and emphasise the needs and personal interests of the group. Thus, these findings suggest that one’s well-being is very much shaped by social support.

Based on past studies (Ammar et al., 2013; Hertz et al., 2015; Santini et al., 2013; Weinstein et al., 2011), the evidence seems to suggest that autonomy, FoMO and social support are linked with psychological well-being. However, there are several gaps in the existing literature. Studies involving the impact of fear of missing out, autonomy, and social support on psychological well-being among university students in Malaysia, which practices a collectivistic culture, are relatively low. Furthermore, fear of missing out is still a relatively new construct (Wegmann et al., 2017), which warrants further research on how it can impact one’s well-being. In addition, the impact of autonomy, fear of missing out and social support on psychological well-being during the Covid-19 pandemic is poorly understood. As the Covid-19 pandemic has impacted us greatly in terms of the prevalence of depression, stress, anxiety, and psychological distress (Wang et al., 2020), it is important to address the need for research on the predicting factors of psychological well-being. Therefore, this study aims to examine the predicting effects of autonomy, FoMO, friends and family support on psychological well-being among Malaysian students.

METHODOLOGY

Participants

The minimum required sample size was estimated using a priori power via G*Power. With a medium effect size (f² = 0.15), a significance level of α = .05, and a statistical power of .95, the analysis determined a minimum sample size of 129 participants is required. A total of 154 Malaysian university students aged between 18 – 24 years old (M = 19.81, SD = 1.44) were recruited online using survey method. The sample consisted of 98 (63.6%) females and 56 (36.4%) males. Participants were mostly Chinese (n = 121, 78.6%), followed by Malay (n = 12, 7.8%), Indian (n = 16, 10.4%) and others (n = 5, 3.2%).

Measures      

Index of Autonomous Functioning

Participants’ autonomy was assessed using the Index of Autonomous Functioning (IAF; Weinstein et al., 2012). The scale consists of a total of 15 questions with 3 subscales: Authorship/self-congruence, interest-taking, and susceptibility to control, with each subscale consisting of 5 questions. Participants reported how true each item is (e.g., My decisions represent my most important values and feelings) on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = not at all true to 5 = completely true. Items 2, 6, 7, 11 and 14 are to be reversed scored. Mean scores were used in data analysis where higher scores indicate higher degree of autonomy. Weinstein et al. (2012) reported that the Cronbach’s alpha for the total IAF score across several studies were .81 - .83. In relation to the Big 5 traits, the scale demonstrated some level of divergent validity (Weinstein et al., 2012). In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha value was .68.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) Scale

FoMO was measured via the 10-item Fear of Missing Out Scale (Przybylski et al., 2013). The scale measures the degree of FoMO one experiences (e.g., I fear others have more rewarding experiences than me) with a 5-point Likert-type scale. It ranges from 1 = Not at all true of me to 5 =  Extremely true of me. Mean scores were used in the analysis where higher scores indicate higher feelings of FoMO. The Fear of Missing Out Scale has been translated to other languages and has indicated good validity (Al-Menayes, 2016; Casale & Fioravanti, 2020) and reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha  .87 to .90; Przybylski et al., 2013). The Cronbach’s alpha for the FoMO scale in the current study was .85.

Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support

The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (Zimet et al., 1988) was used to measure participants’ perceived social support. The scale consists of 12 items and measures 3 subscales namely friends, family and significant others. Each subscale has 4 items with a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = Very strongly disagree to 7 = Very strongly agree. Mean scores were used in data analysis where higher scores indicate higher perceived social support. A sample item is “I get emotional help and support from I need from my family”. The scale demonstrated sound psychometric properties and the Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was .88. Cronbach’s alpha for friends and family subscale were .87 and .85 respectively (Zimet et al., 1988). In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha for friends and family support were  .91 and .85 respectively.

Perma Profiler

Psychological well-being was measured using the Perma Profiler by Butler and Kern (2016). The scale consists of 15 items measuring positive emotions, engagement, meaning, relationships and accomplishment (3 items per subscale). A sample question measuring engagement is “How often do you become absorbed in what you are doing?”. In addition, 8 ‘filer’ items measuring negative emotion, health, overall happiness, and loneliness were also included. All items were measured using an 11-point scale with response anchors differing for different questions. Higher scores indicated higher well-being. Butler and Kern (2016) remarks that the scale demonstrated evidence for content, divergent, and convergent validity. The Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale ranged between .92-.95. Initial studies showed evidence of convergent and divergent validity. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was .92.

Procedure

The Department of Psychology Ethics Committee has approved this study (Approval code: 202010099). A poster and a message inviting participants to participate in the study were sent out via social media platforms such as WhatsApp, Instagram and Facebook. The poster and message contained a link inviting participants to participate in this study via Qualtrics, an online survey tool. Participants were given an information sheet, followed by a consent form. Participants who consented completed the questionnaires which consisted of a demographic form and four scales.  After completing the study, participants were given an online debriefing statement.

Data Analysis

All data were analyzed using IBM SPSS v.27. Preliminary analysis included removing outliers and identifying missing data. As less than 5% of data contained missing cases, 10 missing cases were corrected with mean imputation (Pallant, 2010).

All variables were found to be normally distributed, as their skewness and kurtosis values fell within the acceptable range of -1 to 1. Therefore, parametric statistics is used in this study. Pearson’s product-movement coefficient was used to determine the relationships between the study variables. Moreover, multiple regression analysis was used to determine the predicting effects of autonomy, social support, and FoMO on psychological well-being.

RESULTS

The relationships between autonomy, social support, fear of missing out (FoMO) and psychological well-being were examined using Pearson’s Correlation analysis. Table 1 shows that there was a moderate negative correlation between FoMO and psychological well-being (r = -.39, p <.001). A moderate positive correlation was found between psychological well-being and autonomy (r = .43, p <.001), social support from friends (r = .40, p <.001) and social support from family (r = .41, p <.001). These findings showed that the higher autonomy and support from friends and family, the better the psychological well-being. Meanwhile, when one has higher FoMO, the poorer their psychological well-being.

A multiple regression analysis was used to measure the predicting effects of autonomy, fear of missing out and social support on psychological well-being (refer to Table 2). The analysis revealed that all independent variables significantly predicted psychological well-being, R = .63, R² = .40, F(4, 149) = 24.30, p < .001, explaining 40% variability in psychological well-being. From the coefficient table, autonomy (β = .18, p = .015), FoMO (β = -.29, p < .001), and social support from friends (β = .25, p = .001) and family (β = .25, p < .001) significantly predicted psychological well-being. This means that as autonomy and social support from friends and family increase, psychological well-being will increase. Meanwhile, as FoMO increases, psychological well-being will decrease. It was also found that FoMO was the strongest predictor of psychological well-being.

DISCUSSION

This study set out to investigate the predicting effects of autonomy, fear of missing out (FoMO), and support from friends and family on psychological well-being among Malaysian students. Our study found that autonomy, support from friends and family significantly and positively correlated with psychological well-being while FoMO was negatively correlated with psychological well-being. FoMO was found to be the strongest predictor of psychological well-being among Malaysian students. 

The finding of the current study on the significant relationship between autonomy and psychological well-being is consistent with past findings (Cordeiro et al., 2016; Paradnikė & Bandzevičienė, 2015). Based on the self-determination theory, autonomy is an important basic psychological needs to promote one’s well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Weinsten et al. (2011) indicated that autonomy is associated with well-being whereby individuals with higher sense of autonomy will experience better well-being. Among university students, autonomy plays an important role in their lives as they are in the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood. They have strong desire for freedom to make their own choices, to be in control of their own decisions, and to take initiative to act (Adriyati & Hatiningsih, 2019). Cross and Gore (2003) stated that people in collectivistic societies are less likely to express freedom and autonomy, which decreases well-being. However, contrary to the statement by Cross and Gore (2003), our study which is conducted in Malaysia, revealed that the role of autonomy positively predicted well-being even in a collectivistic society.  Thus, when students’ desires for autonomy are fulfilled, they are more likely to experience better psychological well-being.

The significant relationship found between FoMO and psychological well-being was in line with previous studies (Hayran & Anik, 2021; Milyavskaya et al., 2018). Past studies have also found that higher FoMO was correlated with more depressive symptoms (Baker et al., 2016), greater levels of stress (Buglass et al., 2017), and higher levels of internet addiction (Burnell et al., 2019), which in turn could impact psychological well-being. A possible explanation for these findings is that social media and modern technology have changed the way we derive our social connectedness and the way we interact with one another (Antonio, 2012). People are constantly browsing through social media to stay updated with their friends' status so that they stay “connected” with what is happening around them. Furthermore, social media constantly reminds them about other experiences in which they are missing out, and this in turn could trigger feelings of anxiety and regret (Milyavskaya et al., 2018). As a result, one will experience FoMO, which then will impact their psychological well-being.

In addition, FoMO was found to be the strongest predictor of psychological well-being. As this study was conducted during a lockdown period amidst the Covid-19 pandemic in Malaysia, a possible explanation for the strong effect of FoMO is that people engage more in social media to stay connected and maintain social relationships amidst the lockdown (Gioia et al., 2021). One may argue that lockdown brings about the absence of photos from social gatherings and parties on social media, which begs the question if people still experience FoMO. However, a study by Hayran and Anik (2021) on university students revealed that FoMO has not simply disappeared due to the absence of pictures of social gatherings and parties but has instead been “replaced” by missing out from online experiences such as online virtual meetups and Netflix parties. Thus, people are engaging more on social media to keep up with the abundance of online activities.

Our study also showed that perceived social support from family and peers significantly correlated with psychological well-being, which is consistent with past studies (Adyani et al., 2019; Ammar et al., 2013; Siedlecki et al., 2014). Awang et al. (2014) remarked that students who have high perceived social support are more confident and comfortable with the environment around them. As a result, social support from peers serves as a strong support for emotional and academic adjustments. Furthermore, students with good social support perceive the environment around them as friendly and supportive, which is beneficial to their well-being and happiness (Karademas, 2006).  During the pandemic, social support was found to be a protective factor against depressive symptoms (Liu et al., 2021). In addition, past studies highlighted that individuals from collectivistic countries reported higher levels of social support compared to individualistic countries (Goodwin & Plaza, 2000; Park et al., 2013) because Asians tend to view themselves as “connected” with others around them (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Thus, individuals with increased support from friends and family are more likely to experience better psychological well-being.

This study provides insight into the variables that affect psychological well-being among university students during the Covid-19 pandemic. However, there are some limitations found in this study. Firstly, this study was conducted during the Covid-19 pandemic whereby the findings obtained from this study could be time sensitive. There could be other possible variables that could affect one’s well-being during a different period of time. Thus, future studies could examine the factors affecting psychological well-being in a post-pandemic period. Secondly, the sample recruited in this study are mainly Malaysians living in Malaysia. Although Malaysia is part of Asian countries which practices collectivistic culture, certain practices in Asian countries do vary due to differences in culture and upbringing. Future studies could conduct cross-cultural studies within Asian countries to examine the predicting effects of autonomy, FoMO and social support on psychological well-being. Lastly, social support among university students may vary depending on their living arrangements. Students living with their parents may experience higher levels of family support. Future studies are encouraged to consider including this variable for a more comprehensive analysis.

Despite these limitations, this study offers significant implications for health policy makers and mental health experts. As FoMO was found to be the strongest predictor of psychological well-being, mental health experts could work towards sharing ideas on detoxing oneself from social media, such as taking periodic breaks from social media or taking time to disconnect from social media. Mental health experts could also incorporate social support as part of psychological interventions for mental health as having a good social support provides opportunity for people to share their feelings. In addition, educators and parents could implement strategies in promoting autonomy among university students as they are in the transition period to adulthood. By allowing them to take charge of their own learning and allowing them to take responsibility for their own actions, their well-being could be enhanced.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this study investigated the predicting effects of autonomy, fear of missing out and social support on psychological well-being among Malaysian students. Individuals with good social support from family and friends and a high autonomy are more likely to have a better psychological well-being, while individuals with higher FoMO was found to experience lower psychological well-being. Thus, having a good sense of autonomy, good social support system from friends and family, along with being satisfied with own’s experience are important in promoting good psychological well-being.

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